(Data collection by Matt McBurney, Angela Sofo, and Edward Koning. When referring to this page, please use the following citation: Koning, E.A., McBurney, M. & Sofo, A. (2024). The IESPI Dataset – Sweden country report. University of Guelph, www.iespi.ca/sweden/.)
Tax-paid pensions
| TP1A | Residence requirement for complete universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-1993 | 11 (10 years) |
| 1994-2023 | 78 (40 years) |
After 1978, the universal public pension in Sweden was available to anyone who had resided in the country for at least 10 years. In order to join the EU, however, the country reformed its pension system, so that it became a prorated benefit requiring 40 years of residence for complete access (Ahlén & Palme 2020, Department of Health and Social Affairs 2003, Försäkringskassan 2010, Koning 2019, Pensions Myndigheten n.d.-a).
| TP1B | Residence requirement for access to pro-rated portion of universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-1993 | -7 (no pro-rating possible) |
| 1994-2023 | 22-26 (3 years, 1 year for migrants from EEA and Switzerland) |
Access to a pro-rated portion of the universal pension requires at least three years of residence. Migrants from EEA countries and Switzerland only require one year of residence in the country (Department of Health and Social Affairs 2003, Försäkringskassan 2010, Pensions Myndigheten n.d.-a). Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the proportion of migrants from EEA countries and Switzerland, using data on the inflow of foreign-born by country of origin from the OECD Migration Database.
| TP2 | Residence requirement, means-tested supplement |
| 1990-1993 | 11 (no program) |
| 1994-2003 | 51-52 (no program) |
| 2004-2023 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
Before the overhaul of the pension system, it was perhaps understandable that did not offer a benefit to compensate those with low pension income. However, after its reform the absence of such a program implied low pension income for many elderly individuals with a migration history. In 2003, the country introduced the Income Support for Elderly (äldreförsörjningsstöd), which is available to all retirees with low pension income because of their short history of residence in the country (Gustafsson 2011, Koning 2019, Pensions Myndigheten n.d.-a).
| TP3 | Status requirement for access to tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | 20 (all registered residents) |
Ever since 1978, the tax-paid pension has been available to all legal residents as long as they meet the age and residence requirements. Since the population registry serves as the primary evidence to determine one’s length of residence, this means all individuals who are registered in it (which is possible for anyone having the permission and intention to stay in the country for at least one year) have access to the universal pension if they meet the age and residence requirements (Department of Health and Social Affairs 2003, Johansson 2010, Koning 2019).
| TP4 | Export possibilities, universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-1993 | 68 (exportable to Nordic countries, to Canada with additional requirements, impossible elsewhere) |
| 1994-2022 | 46-65 (exportable to EEA states, to Canada with additional requirements, impossible elsewhere) |
| 2023 | 88 (exportable to Nordic countries, to Canada with additional requirements, impossible elsewhere) |
Residence in Sweden is normally required to access the universal pension benefit, but there are a few exceptions. Nordic citizens are treated as if they live in a single social security system, and therefore any former Swedish resident can count the years they have resided in Sweden when applying for universal pension programs in another Nordic country. Since 1994, the pension has also been exportable to EEA countries and Switzerland, until a legislative change made this impossible as of January 1, 2023. Finally, the pension benefit can also be exported to Canada, but in that case additional residence requirements apply (minimum of twenty years of residence in Sweden (Banting & Koning 2017, Försäkringskassan 2010, Pensions Myndigheten n.d.-b, Svenskar i världen 2022, Trier 1982). Scores on this indicator have been weighted to account for the proportion of migrants from Nordic countries, EEA countries and Switzerland, and Canada, using data on the stock of foreign-born by country of birth from the OECD Immigration Database.
Health care
| HC1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
There is no waiting period to access health care. Everyone who is registered in the population registry is immediately covered (Ahlén & Palme 2020, Glenngård 2020, Koning 2019, Parliament of Sweden 1982).
| HC2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 20 (all registered residents) |
Throughout the period under study, the health care system covers all residents who have been registered in the population registry, which applies to anyone who is legally entitled to stay for at least a year (Anell et al. 2012, Glenngård 2020, Koning 2019, Parliament of Sweden 1982, Van Aerschot 2014).
| HC3A | Public health care available to asylum seekers |
| 1990-1996 | 100 (none) |
| 1997-2010 | 83 (emergency care and urgent care) |
| 2011-2023 | 67 (necessary care, with user fees) |
Asylum seekers have long had rather meagre health care rights in Sweden. They have only had access to subsidized emergency care since 1996. And can receive funded necessary care since 2010, although user fees are still applied for many services (Aida 2021, Koning 2019, Roos 2023).
| HC3B | Public health care available to undocumented migrants |
| 1990-2008 | 100 (none) |
| 2009-2013 | 67 (emergency care, with user fees) |
| 2014-2023 | 33 (emergency care, treatment of communicable diseases, perinatal care) |
For a long time, undocumented migrants were excluded entirely from the Swedish health care system. Reforms in 2008 and 2013, however, granted access to emergency care as well as perinatal care and treatment of communicable diseases (Cuadra 2011, Koning 2019, Mona et al. 2021).
| HC4A | Accessibility services, translation services |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (state-funded translation services guaranteed) |
Since at least the 1980s, patients with low proficiency in Swedish have been able to make use of state-funded interpreters. There are, however, some studies that criticize these interpreter services for being unreliable and of poor quality (Hadziabdic & Hjelm 2019, Parliament of Sweden 1986, Samkange-Zeeb et al. 2020, Socialstyrelsen 2016, Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions n.d.).
| HC4B | Accessibility services, other attempts to increase uptake |
| 1990-2009 | 100 (no services) |
| 2010-2018 | 75 (public recognition of need for cultural sensitivity, but practical implication unclear) |
| 2019-2023 | 50 (diversity training available to health care professionals) |
Since 2009, public health care documents have repeatedly emphasized the need for cultural sensitivity in health care delivery. Training modules to help health care professionals accomplish that goal started appearing in 2018 (Berlin et al. 2010, Hjelm 2009, Holstein 2019, Koning 2019, Region Stockholm n.d., Wedel 2020).
Contributory pension benefit
| CP1 | Minimum contribution years |
| 1990-1999 | 13 (3 years, 1 year for migrants from agreement countries) |
| 2000-2023 | 5 (1 year) |
Before 1999, retirees could access the contributory pension after three years of contributions. Migrants from Nordic countries, Canada, and the United States (since at least 1990) and EEA countries (since 1994) were able to count contributions in their country of origin and access the pension already after one year of contributions in Sweden. A major overhaul in 1999 turned the contributory pension into a pre-funded system, in which every contributor can access the contributions they made upon retirement – as such, the system is available to everyone who has made at least one year of contributions (Hagen 2013, Johansson 2010, Palmer 2000, Skatteverket n.d.). Scores on this indicator until 1999 have been weighted to account for the proportion of migrants who could benefit from aggregation arrangements using data on the inflow of foreign-born by country of birth from the OECD Migration Database.
| CP2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (all legal residents) |
There is no status requirement to access the contributory pension benefit. Anyone can access the benefit as long as they meet the age and contribution requirements (Klevmarken 2002, Koning 2019, OECD 2019).
| CP3 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (export possible without restrictions) |
The contributory pension can be exported anywhere in the world, without additional restrictions (Palmer 2000, Pensions Myndigheten n.d.-b).
Contributory unemployment benefits
| CU1 | Minimum contribution weeks |
| 1990-1994 | 50 (52 weeks) |
| 1995-2023 | 32-40 (52, with aggregation possibilities for EU migrants) |
The precise contribution requirement to access contributory unemployment benefits in Sweden have changed repeatedly during the period under study. Nevertheless, throughout there has been a requirement to have been a member of an unemployment insurance fund for at least twelve months. This requirement is waived for EU migrants, who can directly count their contributions to contributory unemployment schemes in their country of origin (Ahlén & Palme 2020, Bergmark & Palme 2003, Nordic Co-operation n.d.-a). Scores on this indicator have been weighted to account for the proportion of EU migrants using data on the inflow of foreign-born by country of birth from the OECD Migration Database.
| CU2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1992 | 38 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, long-term work permit holders) |
| 1993-2023 | 13 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, long-term work permit holders, asylum seekers) |
Everyone whose permit allows them to build up a work history of at least one year is eligible for contributory unemployment benefits in Sweden. Since 1992, this includes asylum seekers who since then have been allowed to work if authorities deemed it likely the claim would take more than four months to process, and since 2005 can decide to opt out of premium payments while awaiting determination of their claim (Bergnehr 2016, Hammarstadt 2008, Koning 2019, Olsson 2016, Swedish Refugee Law Center n.d.).
| CU3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There are no integration requirements associated with accessing contributory unemployment benefits in Sweden. All recipients, regardless of their background, are required to undertake efforts to find employment (Bergnehr 2016, Koning 2019).
| CU4 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-1994 | 100 (not possible) |
| 1995-2023 | 79-86 (up to three months within EEA, not possible elsewhere) |
Residence in Sweden is normally required to access contributory unemployment benefits. Since Sweden joined the EU, recipients have been able to retain their benefits while looking for employment in EEA member states for a period of up to 3 months (Banting & Koning 2019, De Wispelaere et al. 2020, Nordic Cooperation). Scores on this indicator have been weighted to account for the proportion of EEA migrants using data on the stock of foreign-born by country of birth from the OECD Migration Database.
Housing benefits
| HB1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
Swedish housing benefits are available to anyone from the moment they are registered in the population registry (Försäkringskassan n.d., Hanenal et al. 2013, Koning 2019).
| HB2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 20 (all registered residents) |
The only status requirement to access housing benefits is to be registered in the population registry. Even though exceptions are made under special conditions, this means that in most cases temporary migrants whose permits do not allow them to stay in Sweden for at least a year are ineligible (Försäkringskassan n.d., Van Aerschot 2014).
| HB3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There are no integration requirements associated with accessing housing benefits in Sweden (Borevi 2012, Försäkringskassan n.d.).
| HB4 | Housing services for successful asylum claimants |
| 1990-2016 | 100 (no targeted services available) |
| 2017-2023 | 0 (guaranteed housing arranged by state) |
For a long time, successful asylum claimants were supported by the same housing services as native-born Swedes. The Settlement Act of 2016, however, mandated municipalities to support asylum seekers after obtaining a residence permit, more specifically by providing them with housing within two months of being designated by the Migration Agency as a reception municipality (Aida n.d., Barthoma et al. 2020, Granath Hansson 2021, Sondell 2018).
Social assistance
| SA1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2004 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
| 2005-2023 | 0-1 (no residence requirement, except 3 months for EU nationals) |
There is no residence requirement for accessing social assistance in Sweden. Everyone is immediately eligible once they are registered in the population registry, as long as they meet the other requirements. The only exception is that as per EU directive 2004/38, EU nationals can be denied access to social assistance in the first three months of residing in Sweden (Aida 2021, Banting & Koning 2017, Gustafsson 2011).
| SA2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 20 (all registered residents) |
Only residents who are registered in the population registry, which is possible for anyone with the permission to reside in the country for at least a year, are eligible for social assistance benefits (Banting & Koning 2017, Gustafsson 2011).
| SA3 | Consequences of welfare uptake |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no consequences) |
Uptake of welfare does not have consequences for one’s residence status or access to permanent residence status or citizenship in Sweden. The current government is preparing economic requirements for accessing citizenship, but the introduction of such new demands post-date the period covered here (Borevi 2012, Government Offices of Sweden 2023, Stadlmaier 2018).
| SA4 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-1992 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
| 1993-2023 | 40 (receipt tied to integration program for some migrants) |
Since the introduction of special social assistance benefits for newly arrived refugees and asylum seekers in 1992, recipients can lose those benefits if they do not participate in integration programs. Other categories of immigrants do not face any integration requirements in accessing social assistance benefits (Gustafsson 2011, Koning 2019, Weisbrock 2011).
Active labor market policies
| AL1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no residence requirements) |
There are no residence requirements associated with accessing active labor market policies in Sweden. Everyone who is registered in the population registry and does not have employment is immediately eligible (Arbetsformedlingen n.d., Bengtsson 2014, Mathias 2017, Nekby 2008, Sandberg et al. 2022).
| AL2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 20 (all registered residents) |
Everyone who is registered in the population registry is eligible to participate in active labour market programs (Arbetsformedlingen n.d., Bengtsson 2014, Mathias 2017).
| AL3A | Availability of language programs |
| 1990-2023 | 14 (available for any immigrant) |
Sweden has offered language training to immigrants since 1969, which are accessible by any migrant with interest (Nordic Cooperation n.d.-b, OECD 2016, Van Aerschot 2014).
| AL3B | Public funding of language programs |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (fully funded) |
Ever since their first introduction, language programs for immigrants have been fully funded (Borevi 2012, OECD 2016, Van Aerschot 2014).
| AL4A | Availability of employment assistance |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (available to all immigrants) |
Since at least 1985, Sweden has offered a variety of integration programs targeted at improving immigrants’ standing in the labor market. These are available to all categories of immigrants (Åslund & Johannson 2011, Gebhardt 2016, Koning 2019, Konle-Seidl & Bolits 2016, Weisbrock 2011, Westphal & Gustafsson 2016).
| AL4B | Nature of employment assistance |
| 1990-2002 | 60 (assistance with finding employment) |
| 2003-2023 | 0 (active initiatives to increase immigrant employment) |
Since 2002, the immigrant-targeted employment programs have become more pro-active, including internships and wage subsidies for employers who hire immigrants (Åslund & Johannson 2011, Gebhardt 2016, Koning 2019, Konle-Seidl & Bolits 2016, Weisbrock 2011).
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