(Data collection by Dianna Roman, Daniel Waring, and Edward Koning. When referring to this page, please use the following citation: Koning, E.A., Roman, D. & Waring, D. (2024). The IESPI Database – Spain country report. University of Guelph, www.iespi.ca/spain/.)
Tax-paid pensions
| TP1A | Residence requirement for complete universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal public pension) |
There is no universal public pension in Spain. The only tax-paid pension benefit is means-tested (OECD 2015, Seguridad Social n.d.-a, Social Security Administration 2002, 2016).
| TP1B | Residence requirement for access to pro-rated portion of universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal public pension) |
There is no universal public pension in Spain (see TP1A).
| TP2 | Residence requirement, means-tested supplement |
| 1990-1991 | 100 (no means-tested pension) |
| 1992-2023 | 50 (10 years) |
Spain established a means-tested pension program for low-income pensioners in 1991. Applicants need to have resided at least 10 years in Spain since the age of 16, including at least two years uninterruptedly before the date of application (Buswell n.d., Moreno-Fuentes 2020, Institute for the Elderly and Social Services n.d., Parliament of Spain 1991).
| TP3 | Status requirement for access to tax-paid pension |
| 1990-1991 | -8 (no tax-paid pension programs) |
| 1992-2023 | 10 (all legal residents) |
There are no formal status requirements for the means-tested benefit apart from legal residence, although in practice the only non-citizen recipients are permanent residents because of the lengthy residence requirement (Institute for the Elderly and Social Services n.d., Parliament of Spain 1991).
| TP4 | Export possibilities, universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal public pension) |
There is no universal public pension in Spain (see TP1A).
Health care
| HC1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no residence requirements) |
There is no waiting period to access health care in Spain. Eligible residents are covered immediately (European Commission 2022, Parliament of Spain 1986).
| HC2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2000 | 30 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, some categories of temporary migrants) |
| 2001-2012 | 0 (all residents) |
| 2013-2018 | 30 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, some categories of temporary migrants) |
| 2019-2023 | 0 (all residents) |
Before 2000, health care in Spain was reserved for citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents, and some categories of temporary migrants. A reform in that year included everyone with proof of address in Spain in the national health care system. A 2012 reform introduced new restrictions, disentitling any resident who did not either pay social security contributions or receive social transfers. Those restrictions were lifted in 2018, when health care was again made available to all residents of Spain (Bernal-Delgado et al. 2018, FRA 2011, Frydryszak & Macherey 2016, Parliament of Spain 2000, 2012, 2018, Peralta-Gallego et al. 2018, Suphanchaima et al. 2015, WHO 2021).
| HC3A | Public health care available to asylum seekers |
| 1990-2009 | 67 (necessary care, with user fees) |
| 2010-2023 | 33 (included in basic system) |
Since the passing of the 1984 Asylum law, asylum seekers in Spain can access necessary health care, and will be provided this care for free if they are unable to afford it. A legislative change in 2009 included asylum seekers fully in the national health care system (Accem n.d.-a, Parliament of Spain 1984a, 2009).
| HC3B | Public health care available to undocumented migrants |
| 1990-2000 | 33 (emergency care, treatment of communicable diseases, perinatal care) |
| 2001-2012 | 0 (included in regular system) |
| 2013-2018 | 33 (emergency care, treatment of communicable diseases, perinatal care) |
| 2019-2023 | 0 (included in regular system) |
Throughout the period under study, undocumented migrants in Spain have been able to access free emergency care, treatment of communicable diseases, and perinatal care. A 2000 reform included undocumented migrants fully in the national health care system. This was reversed in 2012, but again implemented in 2018 (Cuadra 2011, Dalli 2018, FRA 2011, Parliament of Spain 2000, 2012, 2018, Peralta-Gallego et al. 2018).
| HC4A | Accessibility services, translation services |
| 1990-2007 | 83 (information brochures) |
| 2008-2023 | 67 (translation services occasionally available in some languages) |
Since 2007, the community of Andalucia runs a phone translation service specifically to help patients access health care. In other parts of the country, however, if such services exist they are offered by private providers. Before 2007, the only assistance for patients with limited proficiency in Spanish consisted of translated information brochures. All in all, several studies find that medical professionals in the country perceive the linguistic barriers they encounter in their work to be large (Andalucia n.d, Quevedo & Rubio 2010, Sandín-Vázquez et al. 2014, Serre Delcor et al. 2021., Vázquez et al. 2016).
| HC4B | Accessibility services, other attempts to increase uptake |
| 1990-2011 | 100 (nothing available) |
| 2012-2013 | 75 (public recognition of need for cultural sensitivity, but practical implication unclear) |
| 2014-2023 | 50 (diversity training available to health care professionals) |
In 2011, Spanish health authorities first acknowledged the need for culturally competent health care delivery. Since 2013, the community of Andalusia has rolled out training for health care professionals to this effect, and this has since been followed by other communities (Pena Díaz 2016, Quevedo & Rubio 2010, Sandín-Vázquez et al. 2014, Serre-Delcor et al. 2021, Vázquez et al. 2016).
Contributory pension benefit
| CP1 | Minimum contribution years |
| 1990-2023 | 16-41 (15 years, with aggregation possibilities for EEA + bilateral agreement countries) |
Since 1985, access to the contributory pension benefit in Spain has required a minimum of 15 years of contributions. Migrants from EEA countries as well as countries with which Spain has signed relevant social security agreements (Brazil, Canada, Chile, Ecuador, Morocco, Paraguay, Philippines, Uruguay and United States since at least 1990, Venezuela since 1991, Mexico since 1995, Russia since 1997, Ukraine since 1999, Tunisia since 2002, Andorra and Australia since 2003, Argentina since 2005, Peru since 2006, Dominican Republic since 2007, Colombia since 2009, Japan since 2011, Bolivia since 2012, El Salvador since 2013, Cape Verde and South Korea since 2014, and Senegal since 2023) can count contribution years in their country of origin and as such do not face a minimum contribution period in Spain (Boldrin et al. 1999, Ministero de Inclusion, Seguridad Social y Migraciones n.d., Seguridad Social n.d.-b). Scores on this indicator have been weighted to account for the proportion of immigrants who can benefit from aggregation arrangements using data on the inflow of foreign-born by country of birth from the OECD Migration Database.
| CP2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 80 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals) |
There are no specific status requirements for accessing the contributory pension scheme. However, considering the lengthy minimum contribution requirement, it is unlikely that any migrant from a country outside the EEA with which Spain has not signed any bilateral agreements would be able to access the program on a temporary permit (Boldrin et al. 1999, Fuentes & Callejo 2011, Seguridad Social n.d.-b).
| CP3 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-2023 | 14-41 (only to agreement countries) |
The contributory pension can only be exported to countries with which Spain has signed relevant bilateral or multilateral social security agreements (see CP1). Scores on this indicator have been weighted to account for the proportion of migrants who could export the contributory pension to their country of origin using data on the stock of foreign-born by country of birth from the OECD Migration Database.
Contributory unemployment benefits
| CU1 | Minimum contribution weeks |
| 1990-2023 | 15-22 (six months, EEA migrants and some agreement countries can aggregate) |
Ever since 1984, access to contributory unemployment benefits in Spain require a minimum contribution history of six months. Migrants from EEA migrants, as well as from Chile (since 1990) and Australia (since 2003), are able to count contributions in their country of origin and therefore do not face a minimum contribution period in Spain (Ministero de Inclusion, Seguridad Social y Migraciones n.d., Parliament of Spain 1984b, 2024). Scores on this indicator have been weighted to account for the proportion of immigrants who can benefit from aggregation arrangements using data on the inflow of foreign-born by country of birth from the OECD Migration Database.
| CU2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 38 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, long-term work permit holders) |
The only requirements for accessing the contributory unemployment benefit scheme are a work history (see CU1) and an availability for work. This means that those who are on permits that restrict their access to the labor market are unable to access that. Asylum seekers have been authorized to work since 2009, but only as of six months after their claim has been lodged (considering it would then also require another six months of contributions before eligibility commences, they are considered ineligible for the purpose of this indicator) (Accem n.d.-b, ECRE 2024, Fuentes & Callejo 2011, Ministero de Trabajo y Economia Social n.d.-a, Parliament of Spain 2009).
| CU3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There have never been integration requirements associated with accessing unemployment benefits or work permits (Fuentes & Callejo 2011, Ministero de Trabajo y Economia Social n.d.-a).
| CU4 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-2004 | 81-92 (up to three months within EEA, not possible elsewhere) |
| 2005-2008 | 77-87 (up to six months within EEA, not possible elsewhere) |
| 2009-2023 | 20 (accrued benefits available at reduced rate upon leaving) |
While residence in Spain is ordinarily required to access contributory unemployment benefits, Spain has allowed recipients to reside in another EEA member state for up to three months, and since 2004, up to six months, for the purpose of finding employment without losing their benefits. Moreover, since 2008 migrants can receive 60 percent of their benefits up front when they leave the country in case they fall unemployed (De Wispelaere et al. 2020: 22, Ministero de Trabajo y Economia Social n.d.-b, Parliament of Spain 2008). Scores on this indicator for the period 1990-2008 have been weighted to account for the proportion of migrants who can export their unemployment benefits to their country of origin using data on the stock of foreign-born by country of birth from the OECD Migration Database.
Housing benefits
| HB1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2000 | 61-88 (tied to permit with 10-year residence requirement, except for EU nationals) |
| 2001-2023 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
Since 2000, all legal residents who are registered in their municipality have had access to housing assistance on the same terms, without any waiting period for newcomers. Before that, third-country nationals were formally excluded, even though some local authorities did offer housing assistance to non-citizens from outside the European Union. Because access to Spanish citizenship comes with a residence requirement of 10 years in most cases, before the 2000 reform migrants from outside the union faced a lengthy waiting period before they could access housing support (Leal & Alguacil 2011, Pareja-Eastway 2009, Parliament of Spain 2000).
| HB2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2000 | 90 (citizens and privileged nationals) |
| 2001-2023 | 10 (all legal residents) |
As mentioned above (see HB1), before 2000 only citizens and EU nationals were able to access housing support in Spain. Since then, all migrants who have been registered in their municipality are included (Fuentes & Callejo 2011, Pareja-Eastway 2009, Parliament of Spain 2000).
| HB3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There have never been direct or indirect integration requirements associated with accessing housing benefits in Spain. This even applies during the restrictive period before 2000, because acquisition of Spanish nationality did not require the passing of any language or integration tests.
| HB4 | Housing services for successful asylum claimants |
| 1990-2009 | 100 (no targeted services) |
| 2010-2023 | 60 (financial settlement support) |
Ever since 2009, successful asylum claimants have access to the same housing support as Spanish citizens and can even receive additional support for the purpose of settling in a first home. This has changed with the introduction of a three-pronged reception system for asylum seekers, in which successful claimants receive financial assistance for rent in the last phase. That said, throughout the period since 2009 successful asylum claimants have had access to financial settlement support (Accem n.d.-c Parliament of Spain 2009, 2022, Gabrielli et al. 2022, Includeu n.d., Iglesias-Martínez & Estrada 2018).
Social assistance
| SA1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2000 | 61-88 (tied to permit with 10-year residence requirement, except for EU nationals) |
| 2001-2004 | 8 (1 year, except for EU nationals) |
| 2005-2023 | 8 (1 year, three months for EU nationals) |
Social assistance only became available to non-citizens from outside the European Union in 2000, even though some Autonomous Communities granted such benefits to foreigners before then. During this period, therefore, most third-country nationals faced the indirect residence requirement associated with acquiring citizenship of 10 years. Since then, the residence requirements have differed between Autonomous Communities. This indicator follows the requirement of one year in the communities of Madrid and Andalusia, where most immigrants reside (Arriba & Pérez Eransus 2007, Community of Madrid n.d., Fuentes & Callejo 2011, Junta de Andalucia 2019, Parliament of Spain 2000, Rodríguez-Planas 2013). Since the introduction of EU directive 2004/38, EU nationals can be denied access to social assistance in the first three months of residing in Spain. Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the proportion of EU migrants using data on the inflow of foreign-born by country of origin from the OECD Migration Database.
| SA2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2000 | 90 (citizens and privileged nationals) |
| 2001-2023 | 10 (all legal residents) |
Non-citizens were granted equal access to social assistance benefits only in 2000 (even though, again, some Autonomous Communities had started granting benefits to foreigners before then). Since 2000, all legal residents are eligible for these benefits as long as they meet the other (income, age, and residence) requirements (Arriba & Pérez Eransus 2007, Rodríguez-Planas 2013).
| SA3 | Consequences of welfare uptake |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no consequences) |
Uptake of social assistance does not have consequences for someone’s residence permit in Spain, nor does it jeopardize access to permanent residence or citizenship at a later point (Fuentes & Callejo 2011, Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, Ministerio del Interior n.d., Unión Europea y Cooperación n.d., Moreno-Fuentes 2020).
| SA4 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There are no integration requirements associated with accessing social assistance benefits in Spain. While there have been some integration requirements for acquiring citizenship since 2015, by that time citizenship was no longer an eligibility requirement for social assistance (Community of Madrid n.d., Fuentes & Callejo 2011, Junta de Andalucia 2019, Parliament of Spain 2015).
Active labor market policies
| AL1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-1993 | -8 (no active labor market programs) |
| 1994-2023 | 5 (six months) |
Spain started rolling out active labor market policies in 1993. Since then, these benefits have been available to those receiving unemployment benefits and newcomers who have resided at least six months in the country (Durán & Gutiérrez 2008, Gago 2016).
| AL2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1993 | -8 (no active labor market programs) |
| 1994-2023 | 50 (citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents, and small number of temporary migrants) |
Active labor market policies are available to those who are legally eligible to work in Spain and change employers. As such, temporary migrants with a closed permit (such as seasonal workers) or no authorization to work (such as asylum seekers in their first six months in the country) are ineligible (Accem n.d.-b, Durán & Gutiérrez 2008, Gago 2016).
| AL3A | Availability of language programs |
| 1990-1994 | -8 (no publicly funded programs available) |
| 1995-2023 | 14 (available for any immigrant) |
Language training for immigrants first became available in Spain in 1994 and has been accessible by all newcomers in the country since then (Cachón Rodríguez 2007, Ministero de Trabajo y Economia Social n.d.-c, Zapata-Barrero 2010).
| AL3B | Public funding of language programs |
| 1990-1994 | 80 (no publicly funded language programs, but no requirement to learn language) |
| 1995-2023 | 0 (fully funded) |
Ever since their first introduction in 1994, immigrant-targeted language training has been freely available (Cachón Rodríguez 2007, Ministero de Trabajo y Economia Social n.d.-c, Zapata-Barrero 2010).
| AL4A | Availability of employment assistance |
| 1990-1994 | -8 (no targeted services available) |
| 1995-2023 | 67 (available to vulnerable groups only) |
Spain first developed integration policy, including labour market support, in 1994. These programs are available for all immigrants, although availability varies from Autonomous Community. There are also more advanced and specialized programs specifically targeting refugees (Cachón Rodríguez 2007, Gago 2016, Ministero de Trabajo y Economia Social n.d.-c). Since the refugee-targeted programs result in a lower score for indicator AL4 (AL4A: 67-available to vulnerable groups only; AL4B: 20-integration training) than the more general employment assistance service (AL4A: 50-available to most, but offered unevenly across the country: AL4B: 60-assistance with finding employment), the scores on these indicators capture the refugee-targeted programs.
| AL4B | Nature of employment assistance |
| 1990-1994 | 100 (nothing available) |
| 1995-2023 | 20 (integration training) |
Since 1994, immigrants in Spain can receive public employment assistance. Refugee migrants can receive more intensive and advanced employment assistance in the form of elaborate integration training (Cachón Rodríguez 2007, Gago 2016, Ministero de Trabajo y Economia Social n.d.-c).
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