(Data collection by Lilla Eperjesi, Madison Milne-Ives, and Edward Koning. When referring to this page, please use the following citation: Koning, E.A., Eperjesi, L. & Milne-Ives, M. (2024). The IESPI Dataset – Germany country report. University of Guelph, www.iespi.ca/germany/.)
Tax-paid pensions
| TP1A | Residence requirement for complete universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal tax-paid pension) |
There is no universal tax-paid pension benefit in Germany: the main pillar of its public pension system is contributory (Bridgen & Meyer 2014, Clark 2003, Heer & Trede 2023).
| TP1B | Residence requirement for access to pro-rated portion of universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal tax-paid pension) |
As above.
| TP2 | Residence requirement, means-tested supplement |
| 1990-2001 | 100 (no program) |
| 2002-2023 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
Before 2001, social assistance was the only benefit available to low-income pensioners. A comprehensive reform in that year, however, introduced a means-tested pension benefit, the so-called Grundsicherung im Alter. There is no waiting period before newcomers can access this benefit (Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales 2023, Busemeyer 2005, Conrad & Fukuyama 2003, Schnabel 2020).
| TP3 | Status requirement for access to tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2001 | -8 (no tax-paid programs) |
| 2002-2023 | 10 (all legal residents) |
All residents are eligible for the Grundsicherung im Alter as long as they meet the age-related and income-related eligibility requirements (Bundesministerium für Arbeit und Soziales 2023, Deutsche Rentenversicherung n.d.-a, Schnabel 2020).
| TP4 | Export possibilities, universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -9 (no universal pension program) |
There is no universal tax-paid pension benefit in Germany (see above).
Health care
| HC1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
All holders of a residence permit have immediate access to the mandatory health insurance program (Huschke 2014, Lindert et al. 2008, Schengenvisa n.d.).
| HC2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1993 | 10 (all legal residents) |
| 1994-2023 | 20 (all registered residents) |
Before 1993, all legal residents were included the health care system. A reform in 1993, however, explicitly barred asylum seekers. Undocumented migrants have been excluded throughout the period under study (European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies 2020, Frydryszak & Machery 2016, PICUM 2001, Pross 1998, Wenner et al. 2019).
| HC3A | Public health care available to asylum seekers |
| 1990-1993 | 33 (included in basic system) |
| 1994-2023 | 83 (emergency care and urgent care) |
Asylum seekers were included in the basic system until 1993. Since then, they have only had access to emergency care and urgent care, except if they have been in the country for a long time (the requirement has ranged between 12 and 48 months during the period under study) (Bozorgmehr & Razum 2015, Pross 1998, Wenner et al. 2019).
| HC3B | Public health care available to undocumented migrants |
| 1990-2023 | 50 (emergency care) |
In practice, undocumented migrants in Germany can only access emergency care because use of any other health care service requires provides to report them to the immigration authorities (Castañeda 2012, Cuadra 2011, Frydryszak & Machery 2016, PICUM 2001).
| HC4A | Accessibility services, translation services |
| 1990-1995 | 100 (nothing available) |
| 1996-2023 | 67 (translation services occasionally available in some languages) |
Since 1995, some hospitals have started translation services in some languages. Since the 2000s, the health care system has also started to provide more written documents in languages of large immigrant populations (Castañeda 2012, Erdsiek et al. 2022, Spallek et al. 2010, Wenner et al. 2022).
| HC4B | Accessibility services, other attempts to increase uptake |
| 1990-1994 | 100 (no services) |
| 1995-2004 | 75 (public recognition of need for culturally sensitive health care delivery, but practical implication unclear) |
| 2005-2023 | 0 (culturally sensitive care providers in at least some instances) |
At least since 1994, there have been repeated statements about the need for culturally sensitive health care delivery, even though initially these calls primarily came from medical professionals and have only been actively echoed by (federal) authorities since the 2000s. Since 2004, some health care providers deliver culturally sensitive care, but there is much variation in the availability and quality of these services across the country (Bäärnhielm & Mösko 2012, Beck et al. 2023, Blum et al. 2012, Erdsiek et al. 2022, Klein & Von dem Knesebeck 2018).
Contributory pension benefit
| CP1 | Minimum contribution years |
| 1990-2023 | 6-17 (five years, with aggregation options for EEA/EU migrants) |
Throughout the period under study, access to the contributory pension benefit has required a minimum of five years of contributions. Migrants from EEA countries, EU countries, and countries with which Germany has signed bilateral agreement countries can count years in their country of origin in determining eligibility, and as such are practically unaffected by this minimum contribution requirement (Bridgen & Meyer 2014, Conrad & Fukuwa 2003, interview GER-03, Schabel 2020). (Germany has bilateral agreements with Bosnia, Canada, Israel, Montenegro, Morocco, Serbia, Tunisia, Turkey, and the United States since at least 1990, Chile since 1994, Japan since 2001, Australia and South Korea since 2003, North Macedonia since 2005, Brazil since 2014, Uruguay since 2016, Albania and India since 2018, and the Philippines since 2019; Deutsche Rentenversicherung n.d.-b.) Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the proportion of migrants who can benefit from aggregation agreements using data from the OECD International Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
| CP2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 40 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, long-term work permit holders) |
There are no status requirements for accessing the contributory pension benefits. However, the minimum contribution requirements effectively bar migrants with short-term and restricted employment in Germany (Conrad & Fukuwa 2003, Deutsche Rentenversicherung n.d.-c, European Commission n.d.).
| CP3 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-2023 | 32-52 (without restrictions to EU/EEA and bilateral agreement countries, with cut in benefit to others) |
Pension benefits can be exported without restrictions to EU and EEA member states and countries with which Germany has signed a bilateral social security agreement. The benefits can be exported to other countries as well, but in case where the applicant is not a citizen of EU, EEA, or bilateral agreement countries, the benefits are reduced by 30 percent (Deutsche Rentenversicherung n.d.-c, Holzmann et al. 2005). Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the proportion of migrants who can export their pension without restrictions using data on the stock of foreign-born individuals from the OECD International Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
Contributory unemployment benefits
| CU1 | Minimum contribution weeks |
| 1990-2023 | 20-42 (52 weeks, with aggregation possible for EU/EEA citizens) |
In order to draw unemployment insurance, applicants need to have contributed for at least 12 months. EU nationals can count contributions in their country of origin in determining eligibility (Bundesagentur für Arbeit n.d., Caliendo 2009, Müller et al. 2014). Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the proportion of EU migrants (scoring them as facing no minimum contribution period) using data from the OECD Immigration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
| CU2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2004 | 63 (citizens, permanent residents, and privileged nationals) |
| 2005-2023 | 38 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, long-term work permit holders) |
The contributory unemployment benefit Arbeitslosengeld was exclusively available to permanent residents and citizens. A major policy reform replaced this benefit with the Unemployment Benefit I, for which temporary residents are technically eligible but in practice is only available to long-term work permit holders. Most temporary residents cannot access the benefit either because their residence permit expires when they fall unemployed or because their permit does not allow them to work long enough in Germany to satisfy the contributory requirements (Bundesagentur für Arbeit n.d., Faist & Haüßermann 1996, Hoffmeyer-Zlotnik & Stiller 2023a, Müller et al. 2014, Riphan & Wunder 2013).
| CU3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There are no integration requirements associated with accessing unemployment benefits.
| CU4 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-2004 | 94-95 (up to three months within EEA, not possible elsewhere) |
| 2005-2023 | 76-83 (up to six months within EEA, not possible elsewhere) |
As per EEC regulation no. 1408/71, unemployment benefits can be exported for a period of up to three months within the European Community. Since the introduction of EC regulation no. 883/2004, recipients can continue to receive benefits while searching for employment elsewhere in the European Economic Area for a period of up to three months, which can be extended by an additional three months (De Wispelaere et al. 2020, EMN 2014, Müller et al. 2014). Scores on this indicator are weighted using data on stock of foreign-born from the OECD Migration Database.
Housing benefits
| HB1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0-2 (no residence requirement for third-country nationals, 3 months for EU nationals) |
There are no formal residence requirements to access housing benefit Wohngeld. However, EU nationals can be barred from means-tested benefits during their first three months in the country (Bruzelius et al. 2015, interview GER-01, Ponzo 2010, Wohngeld n.d.). Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the proportion of EU migrants (scoring them as facing a 3-month residence requirement) using data from the OECD Immigration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
| HB2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 10 (all legal residents) |
All legal residents are eligible for housing benefits if they meet the income requirements (Faist & Haüßermann 1996, interview GER-01, GER-02, Wohngeld n.d.). It is worth noting, however, that a precondition for obtaining a temporary residence permit is to sustain oneself without relying on public funds. While temporary residents are eligible to claim housing benefits, some provincial governments instruct them to “clarify the implications with immigration authorities before submitting an application” (NRW n.d.).
| HB3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There are no integration requirements to access housing benefits in Germany.
| HB4 | Housing services for successful asylum claimants |
| 1990-2023 | 100 (no targeted services available) |
Successful asylum claimants in Germany do not have privileged access or treatment when it comes to housing. As a result, many stay in reception centers long after their claim has been determined (Faist & Haüßermann 1996, Hoffmeyer-Zlotnik & Stiller 2023b, interview GER-01).
Social assistance
| SA1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2004 | 0 (no residence requirement) |
| 2005-2023 | 1-2 (no residence requirement for third country nationals, 3 months for EU nationals) |
There are no formal residence requirements for accessing social assistance in Germany. However, since the introduction of EU directive 2004/38, in their first three months EU migrants can be denied access and referred to their country of origin (or last employment) for assistance (Bruzelius et al. 2015, Müller et al. 2014, Ratzmann 2022).
| SA2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1993 | 30 (citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents, some categories of temporary migrants) |
| 1994-2023 | 50 (citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents, small number of temporary migrants) |
All holders of a long-term residence permit are eligible for social assistance. Other groups can receive such benefits only on a discretionary basis. Before 1993, newly arrived asylum seekers were also eligible for social assistance benefits, but since then they receive a minimum benefit that is about 20% lower than the level of general social assistance and is usually provided in kind or with vouchers (Bosswick 2000, EMN 2014, Liedtke 2002, Müller et al. 2014, Söhn 2013).
| SA3 | Consequences of welfare uptake |
| 1990-2023 | 71 (loss of right of residence for some but not all temporary migrants) |
Temporary migrants who claim social assistance over a long period run serious risks: their permit may not be renewed, they may become ineligible for naturalization, and they may even be subject to expulsion (Faist & Haüßermann 1996, Müller et al. 2014, Sainsbury 2006, Stadlmaier 2018).
| SA4 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2005 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
| 2006-2023 | 40 (receipt tied to integration program for some newcomers) |
Since 2005, participation in or completion of an integration course has been obligatory for migrants who are claiming social assistance. EU nationals are exempted from this requirement (Doerschler & Jackson, Joppke 2007, Ratzmann 2022, Rother 2010).
Active labor market policies
| AL1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 8-13 (tied to receipt of unemployment benefits, which requires 12 months of work history, except for EU nationals) |
Since at least the 1980s, (West) Germany has offered a wide range of active labor market policies, including vocational training, wage subsidies, and employment subsidies. Most of these are only available to recipients of unemployment benefits and therefore require a work history of at least 12 months (see CU1) (OECD 2021, Wapler et al. 2022, Zoellner et al. 2018).
| AL2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2004 | 70 (citizens, permanent residents, and privileged nationals) |
| 2005-2023 | 30 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, some categories of temporary migrants) |
Because access to most active labor market policies is reserved for recipients of unemployment benefits, the status requirements are the same as for unemployment benefits (see CU2).
| AL3A | Availability of language programs |
| 1990-2005 | 86 (available for privileged groups only) |
| 2006-2023 | 14 (available for any immigrant) |
Before 2005, the only funded language training was a small program exclusively available to Aussiedler. An elaborate integration reform in 2005, however, introduced language classes that are accessible to all newcomers (unless they already have sufficient proficiency in German) (Doerschler & Jackson 2010, Federal Office for Migration and Refugees n.d., Joppke 2007, Rother 2010).
| AL3B | Public funding of language programs |
| 1990-2005 | 40 (nominal fees) |
| 2006-2023 | 20 (fully funded for some, nominal fees for others) |
Language classes are heavily subsidized, but migrants do need to pay nominal fees. These fees are waived for migrants who experience financial difficulties (Doerschler & Jackson 2010, Federal Office for Migration and Refugees n.d., Joppke 2007, Rother 2010).
| AL4A | Availability of employment assistance |
| 1990-2005 | 83 (available to privileged groups only) |
| 2006-2023 | 0 (available to all immigrants) |
Before the 2005 integration reform, Germany offered little publicly funded integration assistance, except for Aussiedler. Since then, integration assistance has been available to all immigrants (Burkert & Haas 2014, Joppke 2007, OECD 2017, Tangermann & Grote 2018).
| AL4B | Nature of employment assistance |
| 1990-2023 | 20 (integration training) |
The integration assistance for Aussiedler before 2005 mostly consisted of small-scale civic orientation training. Since the 2005 reform, immigrants can access a variety of employment assistance, including integration training, assistance with foreign credential recognition, vocational training, referral services, and job application counselling (Burkert & Haas 2014, Federal Office for Migration and Refugees n.d., Joppke 2007, OECD 2017, Tangermann & Grote 2018).
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