(Data collection by Angela Sofo and Edward Koning. When referring to this page, please use the following citation: Koning, E.A. & Sofo, A. (2024). The IESPI Dataset – Austria country report. University of Guelph, www.iespi.ca/austria/.)
Tax-paid pensions
| TP1A | Residence requirement for complete universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal public pension) |
There is no universal public pension in Austria. The most important public pension is contributory, and the only tax-paid pension benefits are small in scope and means-tested in benefit structure (Obinger & Talos, 2010).
| TP1B | Residence requirement for access to pro-rated portion of universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal public pension) |
As above.
| TP2 | Residence requirement, means-tested supplement |
| 1990-2023 | 12-59 (15 years of contributions, but with totalization possibilities for migrants from EU/EEA and bilateral agreement countries) |
In 1965, the government introduced the so-called ‘Ausgleichszulage’, a means-tested top-up benefit for low-income pensioners (Obinger et al., 2010). Eligibility depends on at least 180 months (15 years) of contributions (General Social Security Act/’Algemeines Sozialversicherungsgesetz’, §236 and §292). Migrants from countries with which Austria has a bilateral social security agreement and member states of the EEA, however, can count contributions in their own member state. These states are Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Liechtenstein, Philippines, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom (agreements since at least 1989), USA (since 1992), Australia and Cyprus (since 1993), Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, and Portugal (since 1994), Croatia, Macedonia, and Slovenia (since 1999), Chile (since 2000), Hungary, Poland, Tunisia, and Turkey (since 2001), Bosnia-Herzegovina and Czechia (since 2002), Kosovo (since 2003), Slovakia (since 2004), Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Malta (since 2005), Bulgaria (since 2007), South Korea (since 2011), Montenegro and Uruguay (since 2012), Moldova and Serbia (since 2013), India (since 2016), and Albania (since 2019) (Ministry of European and International Affairs, n.d.). Scores are weighted to account for the proportion of migrants from these countries (coding them as not facing any residence requirements) using data on country of origin from inflow of foreign population from the OECD Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
| TP3 | Status requirement for access to tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | 70 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals) |
There are no specific status requirements for accessing the ‘Ausgleichszulage’. In practice, however, it is only accessible to citizens, permanent residents, and privileged nationals (those arriving from countries with which Austria has social security agreements) because it is impossible for anyone else to accumulate the necessary work history of 15 years (General Social Security Act/’Algemeines Sozialversicherungsgesetz’, §236 and §292).
| TP4 | Export possibilities, universal tax-paid pension |
| 1990-2023 | -8 (no universal public pension) |
Austria has not had a universal pension throughout the time period under investigation (see above, TP1A).
Health care
| HC1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no waiting period) |
There is no waiting period before newcomers can access public health insurance (General Social Security Act, §10 and §17, Government of Austria, n.d.-a).
| HC2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2004 | 20 (all registered residents) |
| 2005-2023 | 10 (all legal residents) |
Most residents in Austria are mandatorily insured. Until a 2004 health care agreement, however, asylum seekers only had access to private insurance. Since then, the federal government has funded health care services for asylum seekers during the time that their claim is being processed (Asylkoordination Österreich 2023; Björngren Cuandra, 2010; Government of Austria, n.d.-a; Marth, 2005).
| HC3A | Public health care available to asylum seekers |
| 1990-2024 | 83 (emergency care and urgent care) |
| 2005-2023 | 33 (included in basic system) |
Since 2004, asylum seekers are included in the general health care system. Before then, they were only able to access emergency care (Asylkoordination Österreich 2023; Björngren Cuandra, 2010; Marth, 2005).
| HC3B | Public health care available to undocumented migrants |
| 1990-2023 | 50 (emergency care) |
Throughout the period under study, undocumented migrants have been barred from the health care system. The only health care services they are able to receive is emergency care at federal hospitals (Björngren Cuandra, 2010; Cuadra 2011, Gruber, 2022; Hofbauer et al., 2005)
| HC4A | Accessibility services, translation services |
| 1990-2010 | 100 (nothing available) |
| 2011-2012 | 83 (information brochures) |
| 2013-2023 | 67 (translation services occasionally available in some languages) |
For a long time, there were no publicly funded translation services in the Austrian health care sector, and the absence of such services was criticized in several academic studies (Dressler & Pils, 2009; Pöchhacker, 2000). Since 2010, however, there have been more attempts to provide translated informational material, and since 2012, access to translation services as well (Gruber, 2020). Nevertheless, the availability of such services is still limited, and academic literature continues to criticize Austria for its limited efforts in removing language barriers to accessing health care (Gil-Salmeron et al., 2021; Kohlenberger et al., 2019).
| HC4B | Accessibility services, other attempts to increase uptake |
| 1990-2010 | 100 (no services) |
| 2011-2023 | 50 (non-mandatory diversity training available to health care institutions) |
Since 2010, medical staff in Austria have had access to (non-mandatory) cultural sensitivity training. Before then, Austria pursued little effort to increase immigrants’ health care uptake (Gruber 202, Kohlenberger et al., 2019).
Contributory pension benefit
| CP1 | Minimum contribution years |
| 1990-2023 | 12-57 (15 years, but with totalization possibilities for migrants from EU/EEA and bilateral agreement countries) |
As in the case of the Ausgleichszulage (see TP2 above), throughout the time period under study a minimum of 180 months of contributions (15 years) have been required to access the contributory pension, even though migrants from EU/EEA countries and countries with which Austria has signed bilateral agreements can count contribution months in their country of origin in meeting this requirement (General Social Security Act/’Algemeines Sozialversicherungsgesetz’, §236; Gruber, 2022; Obinger and Talos, 2010). Scores are weighted to account for the proportion of migrants from these countries (coding them as not facing any residence requirements) using data on country of origin from inflow of foreign population from the OECD Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
| CP2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 80 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals) |
Because of the lengthy minimum contribution requirements (see CP1), in practice only citizens, permanent residents, and migrants from the EU/EEA and countries with which Austria has signed bilateral agreements are able to access the contributory pension benefit.
| CP3 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (export possible without restrictions) |
The contributory pension can be exported anywhere in the world, without additional restrictions (Government of Austria, n.d.-b; Heindlmaier, 2020).
Contributory unemployment benefits
| CU1 | Minimum contribution weeks |
| 1990-2023 | 14-44 (52 weeks, but with totalization possibilities for some migrants) |
While there have been many changes to the precise eligibility criteria for accessing ‘Arbeitslosengeld’, the contributory unemployment benefit in Austria, throughout the period under study access has required a minimum contribution of 52 weeks for first-time claimants (Government of Austria, n.d.-c; Obinger & Talos 2010; Social Security Administration, 2018; Winter-Ebmer, 2003). Migrants from EU/EEA countries as well as from countries with which Austria has signed a bilateral agreement on unemployment benefits can count contributions in their country of origin in satisfying this requirement. These states are Belgium, Finland, Germany, Greece, Israel, Italy, Spain, and United Kingdom (agreements since at least 1989), Cyprus (since 1993), Denmark, France, Iceland, Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and Sweden (since 1994), Liechtenstein (since 1996), Croatia, (North) Macedonia, and Slovenia (since 1999), Hungary and Poland (since 2001), Bosnia-Herzegovina and Czechia (since 2002), Kosovo (since 2003), Slovakia (since 2004), Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Malta (since 2005), and Bulgaria and Romania (since 2007) (Ministry of European and International Affairs, n.d.). Scores are weighted to account for the proportion of migrants from these countries (coding them as not facing any residence requirements) using data on country of origin from inflow of foreign population from the OECD Migration Database. Extrapolation used for missing data.
| CU2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1994 | 50 (citizens, permanent residents, long-term work permit holders) |
| 1995-2023 | 38 (citizens, permanent residents, privileged nationals, long-term work permit holders) |
Throughout the period under study, there have not been explicit status requirements for accessing ‘Arbeitslosengeld’. However, because of the minimum contribution requirement (see CU2), several groups of migrants are de facto ineligible. Asylum seekers are not allowed to work sufficient hours to meet the contribution requirement, and international students, seasonal migrants, and holders of temporary permits that are tied to a specific employer are in a similar situation: their permits either do not enable them to build up sufficient entitlement or forces them to leave the country when they become unemployed (Afonso, 2013; Gächter, 1995; Government of Austria, n.d.-c; Gruber, 2022; Perchinig, 2009).
| CU3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
There are no integration requirements for accessing unemployment benefits (Government of Austria, n.d.-c). That said, it is worth noting that it is hard to satisfy the eligibility requirements in the absence of a permanent residence permit, which since 2003 comes with integration requirements (Gruber, 2022).
| CU4 | Export possibilities |
| 1990-1993 | 100 (not possible) |
| 1994-2023 | 81-92 (up to three months within EEA, impossible elsewhere) |
Unemployment benefits are only available to residents of Austria. However, as per EEC regulation no. 1408/71 and EC regulation no. 883/2004, since Austria has been a member of the EEA job seekers have been able to bring the benefit to any state in the European Economic Area or Switzerland for up to three months, albeit under additional conditions (Arbeitsmarktservice, n.d.; Riedel & Chmielowski, 2020). Scores on this indicator are weighted to account for the differential rules using data on the stock of foreign-born by country of birth from the OECD migration database.
Housing benefits
| HB1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 48 (five years) |
Housing allowances and rent benefits have a minimum residence requirement of five years. The same applies to social housing: this is reserved for those who hold a permanent residence permit, which is only available after five years of residence, and EU nationals who have resided in the country for more than 5 years. The precise eligibility criteria differ considerably across the nine provinces, with some setting even more demanding criteria. Recognized refugees are exempted from all residence requirements: they gain access to housing benefits and social housing as soon as their claim has been accepted (Immobilienscout, n.d.; Mundt, 2015, 2018; Social Affairs Ministry, 2016).
| HB2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1994 | 100 (citizens) |
| 1995-2006 | 90 (citizens, privileged nationals) |
| 2007-2023 | 70 (citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents) |
For a long time, only citizens and (since 1995) EU nationals were eligible for social housing in Austria. In 2006, however, the European Union forced Austria to grant access to third-country nationals with a permanent residence permit as well (Immobilienscout, n.d.; Reinprecht, 2007; Richter & Pflegerl, 2001).
| HB3 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 60 (tied to permit demanding integration requirements for some migrants) |
There are federally mandated direct integration requirements for accessing housing benefits in Austria (even though the province of Upper Austria did set such requirements in 2017; see Gruber, 2022). However, except for refugees and EU nationals, all migrants face indirect integration requirements for accessing these benefits. Before 2006, they would have had to acquire Austrian citizenship first, which comes with integration and language requirements, and since 2003 there have been integration and language requirements for acquiring a permanent residence permit as well (Bohaczek & Pimperl, 2010; Koning, 2011, Pöschl, 2006).
| HB4 | Housing services for successful asylum claimants |
| 1990-2023 | 100 (no targeted services available) |
Migrants do not receive much targeted support in finding housing in Austria. Successful asylum seekers are required to leave reception centers within four months after a positive determination. The most significant source of support comes from NGOs such as Caritas and Asylkoordination, who since the 1990s have offered refugees some assistance with finding accommodation and signing rental contracts (Aigner, 2019; Almaze, 2021; Asylkoordination Österreich, 2023b).
Social assistance
| SA1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-1994 | 52 (tied to permit demanding five years of residence) |
| 1995-2023 | 49-52 (tied to permit demanding five years of residence, five years of residence for EU nationals) |
Throughout the period under study, social assistance has only been available to permanent residents, which requires residence of at least five years in Austria, and (since Austria joined the EU) EU nationals who have resided in the country for more than 5 years. The only exception applies to successful asylum seekers: they become eligible for social assistance as soon as their asylum claim has been accepted (Gruber, 2022, Social Affairs Ministry, 2016; Tálos, 2004). Scores are weighted to account for the proportion of EU migrants using data on inflow of foreign population from the OECD Migration Database.
| SA2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1994 | 80 (citizens, permanent residents) |
| 1995-2023 | 70 (citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents) |
Social assistance benefits are only available to permanent residents and citizens of Austria. Since Austria joined the EU in 1995, the benefits are also available to EU nationals who have resided in the country for five years (Gächter, 1995; Social Affairs Ministry, 2016).
| SA3 | Consequences of welfare uptake |
| 1990-2023 | 100 (loss of right of residence even for some permanent residents) |
Social assistance is not available to temporary residents (see above), and indeed, a precondition for a residence permit is the ability to secure one’s livelihood without having to rely on state assistance. Even permanent residents can lose their right of residence when they become unable to support themselves. Similarly, relying on social assistance can be grounds to deny a citizenship application (Gächter, 1995; Government of Austria, n.d.-c; Stadlmair, 2018).
| SA4 | Integration requirements |
| 1990-2003 | 0 (no integration requirements) |
| 2004-2023 | 100 (tied to permit with integration requirements, with minimal exceptions) |
There are no direct integration requirements associated with accessing social assistance benefits. However, since 2003, there are both integration and language requirements to obtain a permanent residence permit, without which it is impossible to claim social assistance for all groups of migrants except for successful asylum claimants (see above, SA1) (Pöschl, 2006).
Active labor market policies
| AL1 | Residence requirements |
| 1990-2023 | 10 (1 year) |
There are many different active labor market policies in Austria, with many different precise eligibility criteria. The most encompassing measures require either receipt of unemployment benefits (see CU1) or long-term registration with Employment Services. The only active labor market policies that could immediately be available are comparatively minor services such as career counselling (Ludwig-Mayerhofer & Wroblewski, 2004; Nagl, 2023). As a rough indicator of the internally variegated regime, access to active labor market policies will be considered to have a residence requirement of 1 year in Austria.
| AL2 | Status requirements |
| 1990-1994 | 60 (citizens, permanent residents, small number of temporary migrants) |
| 1995-2023 | 50 (citizens, privileged nationals, permanent residents, small number of temporary migrants) |
Active labor market policies are only available to those migrants who have unrestricted access to the Austrian labor market. Most categories of individuals on a temporary permit, such as seasonal workers, international students, holders of a closed work permit, and asylum seekers, are ineligible (Nagl, 2023).
| AL3A | Availability of language programs |
| 1990-2003 | -8 (no publicly funded programs available) |
| 2004-2005 | 14 (available for any immigrant) |
| 2006-2023 | 71 (available for vulnerable groups only) |
Before an integration reform in 2003, language training for migrants received little attention in Austria, mostly because proficiency in German was a precondition for admission in the first place. Since then, however, there have been mandatory language classes for migrants. Since 2005, all migrants except for refugees and people who have been granted subsidiary protection have to fund these courses themselves (Duncan, 2010; Extramania & Van Avermaet, 2011; Perchinig, 2009).
| AL3B | Public funding of language programs |
| 1990-2003 | 80 (no publicly funded language programs, but no requirement to learn language) |
| 2004-2005 | 20 (fully funded for some, nominal fees for others) |
| 2006-2023 | 60 (discount on fees if completed successfully) |
When language programs were initially founded, all migrants (except refugees) were asked to pay a nominal fee to participate. Since 2005, however, migrants are required to pay the full costs of the courses, even though they can receive some of the costs back if they complete the course successfully (City of Vienna, n.d.; Extramania & Van Avermaet, 2011).
| AL4A | Availability of employment assistance |
| 1990-2011 | -8 (no targeted services available) |
| 2012-2023 | 17 (available to all immigrants intending to become permanent resident) |
Austria has long had no immigrant-targeted employment assistance programs, which has occasionally been criticized by academics (Kaloianov, 2012; Perchinig, 2009). This changed in 2011, however, when the government established the State Secretariat for Integration, which has since offered a range of immigrant-targeted employment assistance services (see also below) (Gruber, Mattes & Stadlmair, 2016; Speer, 2018). These are available to all migrants who have unrestricted access to the Austrian labor market (Arbeitsmarktservice, 2018; Nagl, 2023).
| AL4B | Nature of employment assistance |
| 1990-2011 | 100 (nothing available) |
| 2012-2023 | 20 (integration training) |
Since 2011, Austria has run a wide range of programs aimed at assisting immigrants’ chances on the labor market, including career advice services, job support programs, skills training, and mentorship programs (Gruber, Mattes & Stadlmair, 2016; Nagl, 2023; Speer, 2018).
Works cited
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